Discuss the view that increased regulation will not necessarily lead Essay

Discuss the view that increased regulation will not necessarily lead to higher ethical standards - Essay Example According to Milton Friedman, â€Å"There is one and only one responsibility of business- to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game†. Therefore, it clearly says that increased regulations will result in higher ethical standards. However, on the other hand, Albert Camus says that ‘Integrity has no need of rules’ which reflects that it is up to the organization to become more ethical then the regulations. The relationship between regulation and ethical standards is not as easy as it looks. Increasing regulations may or may not lead to increase in ethical standards. If it would have been the case then companies to maintain the conduct of its employees ethically sound would have been competing on number of regulations than their effectiveness. This essay will explore and analyse the view that increased regulation does not lead to increase in the ethical standards. On developing the g eneral argument, this essay will also attempt to develop support from variation in accounting and auditing treatments with level of compliance to financial regulation and ethical standard. ... Concerns regarding the ethical conduct of business have gained increased attention since recent past, when corporate scandals, mainly Enron scandal, were unveiled and it resulted in huge fines, reputational loss and even jail sentences (BBC News, 2002). It proved to be the earthquake in trust of stakeholders on the validity of information presented by firms and increased distrust about the accounting practices worldwide (Enderle, 2004). The question was posed to entire mechanism that remained incapable of indentifying the deceiving accounting practices were given least or no punishments (Enderle, 2004). In the mentioned case, it was desirable to correct the existing regulation with focus to eliminate the flaws. This exercise presumably was expected to have more constructive results. The role of auditors in particular became a question mark after this scandal. Moreover on adoption of the corrective measures, the impact of current financial crises was also expected to have been mitigat ed to some extent (Argandona, 2012).Contrary to this and without taking lessons from Enron case, increased regulations were imposed on businesses. Increased regulation provided more options to business professionals than ever to use various shades to protect businesses - in both fair and unfair ways. As a result, the newer shock in form of economic downturn took high intensity wave and pushed the entire economy to the verge of survival. Ethics appear to be a relative term being adjusted in relation with the domain in which it is being discussed. Here comes the biggest dilemma of ethics. Since there is no separation of boundaries, it gets easier to develop

Employee Recognition Programs Essay Example for Free

Employee Recognition Programs Essay All business entities, big or small, have human resource. Commonly known as employees, these people are an organization’s most valuable asset. These are individuals within the firm who serve as the organization’s human capital and work toward achieving the goals of the company. Without human workforce, establishments will not be able to perform its day-to-day operations. Even if an organization is not labor intensive, it is incontestable that a firm still needs human resource to manage and look over its undertakings, and continuously thrust the company towards proper administration, profitability and success. The improvements and changes in the industry and economy besides increased awareness of employees as a valuable resource has changed the focus from controlling to managing this resource† (Purdy, 2007). As more and more organizations rely on human workforce, there is now the need to manage the most dynamic resource of a company, who are its employees. Recruiting the right kind of employees and training them to become productive are not only the seeming obligation of a company. But more importantly, keeping these employees motivated will not only enhance them personally but will encourage high performance, which will benefit the organization as well. â€Å"Employee morale within an organization has a direct impact on the satisfaction level of its customers and the company’s ultimate success† (Fretwell, 2002, p. 1). For that reason, companies perform different kinds of employee recognition programs that will significantly improve employee morale. One very important detail to remember is that the leader of the organization must have the ability to identify and recognize decline in employee morale, factors causing such, and acceptance of this condition. After which, there are many feasible areas to work on to be able to work out and tidy up the problem. It is very crucial to start with the management. One of the most important steps is to correspond. Communication is always important in maintaining a smooth professional relationship between employees and the management. Encourage the employees to come forward with issues, suggestions, conflicts, complaints, and feedbacks. Listen carefully; do not leave the employees hanging. This way, management will be able to know clearly what factors are causing the employees to perform in such a way that disintegrates their work. Also, they will be able to know the multiple viewpoints of the employees, which if properly attended to, may have the effect of high morale. This method has always been simple and costs nothing at all! Plus it provides a powerful solution to morale problems. Once the leaders know the problem, it is easier to find probable solutions and ways of improving the esteem of the employees. Make sure the employees have a clear understanding of their professional goals within the organization. Keep them up to date about the business, making them feel more involved. Encourage creativity and be consistent in the administration of rules and policies. This way, the employees will not feel they are being treated with prejudice once they get penalized for mistakes. Make them understand what they are going through. However, sometimes, letting the employees do they own work is what they need. They want to feel they are trusted to get their work done. Teambuilding can also help eliminate negative feelings and actions by fostering respect among employees. The power to make decisions help employees realize their importance to the company, and this increases the esteem of the employees. Also, in order to get work done, and done right, the leaders of the organization need to give the employees the skills and tools for them to complete their tasks. This includes giving them support and the training that they need in order to improve or hone their abilities. Management must also identify and nurture those people who perform well and must groom them for leadership roles. At the same time, it has to identify and help the average performers to improve themselves and their productivity. Acknowledging the work of the employees always gives them a reason to work harder and become recognized, making them even more enhanced and productive. Simple awards may do, like what establishments often offer, like â€Å"Employee of the Month† awards may be a step towards recognizing the employees’ hard work. Moreover, giving promotions to excellent and highly improved workers enable them to boost their confidence in terms of their work and push them to work even harder. Provide a better working environment by assuring the safety of the employees while at the workplace. This gives them the guarantee that they are well taken care of by the management. Higher financial remunerations, bonuses and benefits promote the value of loyalty from the employees to the organization. With better compensation, employees are able to give high regard for their work and tend to become satisfied of what they are doing and whom they are working for. Develop incentive programs that improve both employee attitude and attendance rates. Most often, lack of incentive is the reason why employees do not get motivated to work. Examples of this programs include â€Å"the ability to cash-in unused sick days at the end of a specific period, allowing employees to leave early one Friday per month of perfect attendance, bonus pay for periods of perfect attendance, and gifts such as savings bonds or gift cards for periods of perfect attendance† (Bushman, 2007, p. 4). Most importantly, beyond putting into primary importance the achievement of success and profitability is the need to take care of the organization’s people. If the employees believe that their bosses do not care either about the task or them, then they will not care either. And naturally, the company and its operations will suffer. Building morale in an organization may not be as hard as one thinks The key to motivating employees is having them feel valued and appreciated by their superiors and within the company that they working hard for. It requires for each and every employee to feel a sense of achievement in career, a sense of belonging at the workplace, a sense of contribution to the organization, and a sense of appreciation for their involvement in the pursuance of the organization’s goals to achieve high employee morale, and eventually higher productivity and overall success.

Essay --

Jordan Guzman 1- 2-14 Mather HS P-8 Did you ever wonder about how the religion Muslim started? Muhammad was meditating in a cave in 610 AD, he was overcome by a powerful force and was instructed to recite. Attracted to Islam’s message of equality and social reform, people of different backgrounds converted and followed the Five Pillars of Islam: belief, prayer, fasting, alms-giving, and pilgrimage. After Muhammad died in 632, there was confusion over who should lead the Muslims. Muhammad was born in around 570 C.E. in Mecca, modern day Saudi Ar... Essay -- Jordan Guzman 1- 2-14 Mather HS P-8 Did you ever wonder about how the religion Muslim started? Muhammad was meditating in a cave in 610 AD, he was overcome by a powerful force and was instructed to recite. Attracted to Islam’s message of equality and social reform, people of different backgrounds converted and followed the Five Pillars of Islam: belief, prayer, fasting, alms-giving, and pilgrimage. After Muhammad died in 632, there was confusion over who should lead the Muslims. Muhammad was born in around 570 C.E. in Mecca, modern day Saudi Ar...

Kafka

This simple yet ingenious quote by Kafka does make one stop and think, is life really that meaningless? How can one concur if life is meaningless or not? Before these questions can be answered, one must ask, what is meaning? Amazingly enough, meaning is something we create ourselves. We attach meaning to everything around us whether it be language, a person, an item, or even a pencil.Meaning comes from within us, making us the sole contributor to our own existence. Therefore, nothing has meaning unless one was to ttach meaning to it, and to attach meaning to anything proves one has created an identity, and that identity allows one to exist. Mortal life by definition comes to an end whether one likes it or not, and because of this, we are always facing the pressure of extinction. The way we cope with this pressure is by giving meaning to the things we do, the things we love, and all the other things which matters in ones life.To give ourselves an identity in which we exist in this wor ld and to leave behind a trace of our existence. Although it is truly evident that meaning comes from within the individual, others might think differently. One of the main arguments against meaning coming from the individual is that we were already given meaning since birth, given a set of beliefs and morals to follow, so how does one create meaning if it was already given to us from generation through generation?What they do not know is that meaning is something we gain through experience, and experience is not something we have from birth. Another valid argument would be that this universe does not need meaning and therefore it is not important to have meaning or create meaning. However, meaning is all around us and whether one likes it or not, we were built to reate meaning in order for us to exist, and for us to be able to create an identity. Before we dive deeper into the topic of how we gain meaning, we first have to question what is meaning?Clare Carlisle quotes Kierkegaard and explains, â€Å"Even though all sorts of things exist, for Kierkegaard the word â€Å"existence† has a special meaning when applied to human life. This meaning arises from the fact that we always have a relationship to ourselves. † (Carlisle, What does it mean to exist? ) To go into more thorough detail, meaning is the stem of everything human. Meaning come rom us because like stated above in the quote by Kierkegaard, we are the only ones can have a relationship to ourselves.Humans only truly exist through identity, identity is gained through experience, and experience is what use to create meaning. Many other individuals would like to believe that meaning does not come within us, but rather given to us, passed down to us from our past generations. For an example, Annie Druyan, wife of astronomer/philosopher Carl Sagan (1934 – 1996) remembered a conversation her husband had with a young man and it goes, â€Å"At the end of it, a young man came up to him and he said: What do you give us in return? Now that you've taken everything from us?What meaning is left, if everything that I've been taught since I was a child turns out to be untrue? Carl looked at him and said, ‘Do something meaningtul. ‘ † (Sagan. ) Without meaning this world would b complete chaos. A person needs to grow up with meaning as a supporting factor, or else their world would become chaotic and by definition, meaningless. The young man in the flashback is a person who struggles with the belief that he grew up with meaning given to him and therefore once he comprehend the truth and reality of it all, there would be no significance left.Carl Sagan tries to make this young man understand that in truth, meaning is something we can create anytime, anywhere, and anyplace. Sagan's simple and brief quote ‘Do something meaningful' gives us hope because it illustrates that meaning does not stem from the beginning of our lives, but something we have to exp erience and something we have to do in order to gain meaning. Although there are many others out there like the young man depicted in Annie Druyan's flashback, they would have to know that meaning is not something in which they are given, but is gained through their Journey and understanding of life.This is significant because it is imperative for ones knowledge to understand that no matter how lost or confused one might be, they could always create their own meaning instead of relying or is biased on the thought that meaning was created for us. If one was to be biased on that thought, their total reliance on the meaning at which was given to them would collapse when they learn the undeniable truth that meaning has always been within their reach. Although meaning is a controversial and conflicting topic to discuss, some might argue that meaning is something we shouldn't try to understand at all.Alex Percival as a strong opinion towards meaning and how he believes the universe does n ot need meaning at all. He states in his own words, â€Å"With modern discoveries, we have found that the meaning of life itself is pointless, but we are extremely lucky to be here because the probability that any one of us being in existence is next to 0%. † (Percival. ) In truth, meaning does matter in this world that we live in. Without meaning we would be lost with no identity, and would have no proof of our own existence.It is important for humans to make meaning for themselves because we want to exist and therefore we should exist. Meaning is not pointless at all, in fact meaning is apart of ones soul, apart of us. Meaning is a tool we strive and depend on to survive, because without it we would feel worthless and needless to say, useless. Despite the many oppositions against the interpretation of meaning, language is one of the many factors in which humans attach meaning to. One blogger give their thoughts on how meaning relates to language and states, â€Å"Language communicates meaning, and the origin of meaning is relationship.In fact; if we use the idea that â€Å"relationship is the origin of meaning† as our lens, it opens up a whole new world eyond the narrow definitions that confine meaning to traditional ideas of language. † (The Wisdom of Life. ) Language in fact does relate to human relationships. To be able to communicate and articulate our thoughts gives us meaning. Without language, humans would not be able to express their thoughts and empty their minds and this is an important process to meaning because how can one attach or create meaning if they cannot express themselves.It is crucial to understand that language does not get it's meaning from others but it is something we attach to it. For n example, as Professor Jacoby has mentioned in class, â€Å"A chair does not have meaning unless we give it meaning. The word chair to another person could mean something much more significant or it could mean nothing depending who this person is and what significant attachment they have given to the chair. † (English 205 Lecture. ) Anyone can give meaning to anything as long as there is a special significance to it.This is how we gain existence and gain identity. It comes through our experience and how we see things in our own eyes and not through what has already been defined for us. When one speaks about language, often we question what is the significance of many languages in this world. As Noam Chomsky says in We Still Live Here, â€Å"A language is not Just words. It's a culture, a tradition, a unification of a community, a whole history that creates what a community is. It's all embodied in a language. † (Chomsky. Language is no longer Just words or different types of languages that people speak around the world, it is what set us apart from others. It is what defines us as a people, it gives us meaning. With many languages around the orld, one could feel lost or troubled because they a re afraid they could lose their identity. Although that is definitely not the case, language could preserve ones true identity because with language comes a culture, a tradition, a community, and a whole history. With all these factors combined, one can find their identity and create meaning to their lives in their own ways and form.To find ones own identity is truly important in terms of existence, and the only way to find ones identity is through finding meaning within themselves. Meaning also attaches itself to forms of exceptionalism, how we interpret and ruly follow this ideal belief is entirely up to the person. In one article by The Globalist, they proclaim, â€Å"And Americans can only be exceptional if we are well informed and willing to make hard choices and take risks. Apathy, ignorance and risk aversion are the death sentence of the American experiment. (The Globalist, The Idea of American Exceptionalism. ) This is not only true to Americans, but also other cultures aro und the world as well. To make one self â€Å"exceptional† the person needs to be able to make well informed decisions on their own accord and take risks by the ips of the their own fingers. This connects to meaning because the only way we can make our own decisions and take our own risks is by attaching our own meaning to what all of these things mean. To be exceptional does not necessarily translate to ignorance, it could also mean it is their only form of survival.To any culture around the world, their identity is found through their culture, history, tradition. They rely on these factors because it is what makes them special, unique, and superior from others. Just like how each of them have their own language, tradition, and beliefs, hey want to preserve this by giving it a name, American Exceptionalism, British Exceptionalism, and Greek Exceptionalism. This way, they have given meaning to these terms which in return protect their identities. As individuals we all have a specific responsibility to be fulfilled once we take our first breaths in this world.One specific sentence which caught my attention in the article by The Globalist was, â€Å"As citizens, we have a sacred duty to conserve government by the active † not passive † consent of the governed. † (The Globalist, The Idea of American Exceptionalism. Even if we are a citizen of American or not, it does not matter, because every human in this Earth has a specific duty, which is to do something meaningful so that can be remembered for what theyVe done. The government is depicted as powertul, and because we see them as powertul, we believe that meaning comes from the government.The governments rules and laws seem to constrain us, but in reality it's constrictions is what tests our understanding of what meaning is. For an example, in The Trial, a relatable quote from the conversation between K. and the doorkeeper goes as this, â€Å"Everyone strives to reach he Law,† sa ys the man, â€Å"so how does it happen that for all these many years no one but myself has ever begged for admit-tance? † The doorkeeper recognizes that the man has reached his end, and to let his failing senses catch the words roars in his ear: â€Å"No one else could ever be admitted here, since this gate was made only for you.I am now going to shut it. † (Kafka 256. ) In The Trial, it is Kafka's intentions to make the court look so powerful, because in this way, K. is forced to look for meaning and search for his own identity instead of trying to search for significant meaning in others. In fact, the court is so powerful that they have already planned everything out for K. K. ‘s future was in their hands and yet he barely even realized this because he was transfixed on trying to get everyone else to help him when the answers was within him.This message is of vital importance to comprehend, because one must know that no matter how powerful the barrier maybe be tween the person and their journey to gain meaning is, their duty as a human allows them to conquer those obstacles and face their own challenges. In The Trial it is evident from the very beginning K. ‘s thoughts were always ethered to what others thought about him and his need to find meaning through them instead of himself. Whenever K. spoke, he would always pay close attention to others, as though their opinions and thoughts were crucial to him, † ‘Intrusive, thoughtless people! ‘ said K. s he turned back into the room. The supervisor may have agreed with him, at least K. thought that was what he saw from the corner of his eye. But it was Just as possible that he had not even been listening as he had his hand pressed firmly down on the table and seemed to be comparing the length of his fingers. † (Kafka 17. Throughout the Trial, K. is repeatedly focusing on what others think of him, how others does not give him attention, and how others gave him mean ing. His mind was constantly affected by the whispers around him and it affected him to the point whereby he was utterly dependent on other people.Kafka's mission was to make us understand that K. was trapped in the wrong place the whole time, in someone else's mind. When a person is trapped in someone else's thoughts, it would be hard for them to understand how important meaning is if they are constantly looking for meaning in the wrong place. One of the great meanings behind Kafka's works was to question one specific word, â€Å"Meaning. † In the text, K. ‘s conversation with the Priest demonstrates how Kafka views the word meaning, miou look for too much help from people you don't know,† said the priest disapprovingly, â€Å"and especially from women.Can you really not see that's not the help you need? † (Kafka 252. ) Kafka used K. as a guide to help him search for or make meaning. K. is constantly seeking and depending on others to be able to survive an d to exist in this world that the meaning to his life soon became xactly that; his reliance on others became his meaning of survival, to exist. Kafka wants us to know that meaning was not already given to us, but we make meaning. We give meaning to people, things, and everything around us so we can feel special, unique, and most importantly to teel I ike we exist.Katka also wants us to know that K was looking for meaning in all the wrong places and to learn from K. ‘s mistakes. K. looked for meaning through his reliance on others, when he was supposed to create meaning within himself. To exist, we first have to rely on our own thoughts and our own ideas. This significant because our thoughts and our own ideas is how meaning is created. If we do not create meaning through our own minds, we do not exist according to Kafka, and that is why K. ies (Kafka 271) at the end because he was not able to realize his whole life depended on someone else, and his sense of meaning came from t he people around him as well which is what makes one exist. Although, this leads to the quote which was stated in the beginning of the essay, â€Å"The meaning of life is that it ends. â€Å"-Franz Kafka. No matter how a person tries define meaning or try to apprehend it, life does end. So why is meaning so important? Meaning not only gives us a sense of security and comfort from the chaotic world we live in, but it also serves as a backbone to our identity and our existence.By us giving meaning to anything and everything, it gives us a sense of comfort knowing that it is significant or in some ways meaningful to us therefore making us feel as though we exist because we gave meaning to something which never had meaning before it came into our lives. To exist, to give meaning, and to gain an identity is all part of what it means to be human. Meaning nowadays is interpreted in many different ways, but one theory seems to tand out more than the rest, and it's that meaning comes from within each individual and not from an external source.We use meaning to create ourselves, find our identities, and sustain our existence through our lifetime. In these modern times, the word meaning has been modified to each persons own interpretations of what meaning is. The problem is, would meaning ever be completely defined? Or is it a word that us humans can attach our own meaning to? It is definitely something to think about as we progress further into the world of constant change and start to lose the roots of our identity and even our existence.

Work Motivation

Work Motivation Theory and Research at The Dawn Of The Twenty-First Century Based on this journal, the writers examine progress made in theory and research on needs, traits, values, cognition, and affect as well as three bodies of literature dealing with the context of motivation: national culture, job design, and models of person environment fit. They focus primarily on work reported between 1993 and 2003, concluding that goal setting, social cognitive, and organizational justice theories are the three most important approaches to work motivation to appear in the last 30 years.The writers reach 10 generally positive conclusions regarding predicting, understanding, and influencing work motivation in the new millennium. Miner (2003) concluded that motivation continues to hold a significant position in the eyes of scholars. Miner’s conclusion is based on a comparison with other middle range theories of organizational behavior (OB). The question remains on an absolute standard, m otivation theory and research have fared well over the last quarter of a century.In answering this question, we provide a definition of the construct and an assessment of how the field of motivation in the workplace has evolved and progressed since the year in which the last chapter devoted exclusively to this topic appeared in the Annual Review of Psychology (ARP). We selectively review theory and research, emphasizing work published in the past decade, 1993–2003, with special emphasis given to research on contextual effects and mediating mechanisms.Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration (Pinder 1998). where motivation is a process resulting from the interaction between the individual and the environment. However, because of space limitations, the writers just focus on national culture, job design cha racteristics, and person-environment fit, omitting reviews of other exogenous sources of motivation.MOTIVATIONAL FRAMEWORK The framework used in reviewing the literature is consistent with Locke & Henne(1986). Needs is followed by a focus on (b) personal traits. An individual difference variable rooted in needs is (c) values. Because context affects the extent to which needs are met and values are fulfilled, emphasis is given to (d) national culture, (e) job design characteristics, and (f) person context fit. Needs and values affect (g) cognition, particularly goals. Cognition plays an integral role in each of these concepts.Although (h) affective reactions need not depend on cognition (Bandura 1997), the two usually are reciprocally related (Lord & Kanfer 2002). Finally, affect is influenced by culture as well as by organizational norms (Lord & Harvey 2002). We close with an (i) assessment of progress in the field since 1977. NEEDS Aslam et al. (2000) presented a process-based anal ysis of need structure and need salience derived from the social identity approach to organizational behavior.When personal identity is salient, needs to self- actualize and to enhance self esteem through personal advancement and growth become dominant. When social identity is salient, the need to enhance group based self-esteem through a sense of relatedness, respect, peer recognition, and attainment of group goals dominate. They stated that McGregor’s (1960) Theory Y assumptions apply when the supervisor and employee share the same identity; Theory X assumptions apply when they do not do so. 2 People are motivated to attain goals that are compatible with their self-identity.Needs associated with a specific group membership are internalized; they serve as a guide for behavior in a specific working context. Need-based theories explain why a person must act; they do not explain why specific actions are chosen in specific situations to obtain specific outcomes. Moreover, they d o not easily account for individual differences. Hence, along with increased attention to needs, there has also been a resurgence of interest in individual differences, particularly with regard to the effects of job characteristics on employee motivation.TRAITS In summary, the importance of personality in predicting, understanding, and influencing choice, affect, and performance has been shown, as well as the importance of job characteristics (e. g. , autonomy) as a mediator/moderator. An issue identified by Locke & Latham (2004) that has yet to be addressed is how general variables such as personality are applied to and are mediated by task and situationally specific variables in affecting performance, or how they are moderated by situations and affect situational structuring and choice.Locke (2001) showed that values and personality work through goals and self-efficacy to influence performance. Yet it is likely that some trait effects are direct and thus are not mediated. Research is needed on if, when, and why this occurs VALUES Values are rooted in needs and provide a principal basis for goals (Locke & Henne 1986). Locke & Henne (1986) argued that values are inherent in most work moti- vation theories. These theories focus on the influence of one or several particu- lar values, such as perceptions of fairness on action or on the effects of values in general (expectancy theory).CONTEXT As a result of globalization, however, values have been studied within the context of a person’s culture and job as well as person-environment fit. National Culture In an attempt to tie together needs and values, Steers & Sanchez-Runde (2002) stated that national culture determines three key sets of distal sources of motivation: (a) people’s self-concept, including personal beliefs, needs, and values; (b) norms about work ethic and the nature of â€Å"achievement,† tolerance for ambiguity, locus of control, etc. ; and (c) â€Å"environmental factors†.Based on their conceptual model, the authors concluded that these distal factors influence self-efficacy beliefs, work motivation levels, and goals, as well as the nature of incentives and disincentives to perform. Building on research findings of other scholars, Leung (2001) has offered four hypotheses for further research: (a) work teams in collectivistic cultures have higher levels of unconditional benevolence and positive social identity that, in turn, lead to higher levels of in-group involvement than is the case for groups that value ndividualism; (b) productivity and performance levels are more homogenous (not necessarily higher or lower) in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures; (c) motivational strategies by superiors have more effect on subordinates in cultures with high levels of power distance than in cultures low in power distance; and (d) negative reactions from supervisors in high power-distance cultures generate more negative reactions among wor kers than is the case in low power-distance cultures.Job Design Characteristics Gustafson & Mumford (1995) reported that the ability of personality measures to predict performance as well as satisfaction increases when characteristics of a job are taken into account. Job autonomy can facilitate the time necessary for learning and development, which in turn improves job performance (Wall & Jackson 1995).Cordery (1997) argued the necessity of differentiating the importance of three dimensions of job autonomy, namely (a) method control as defined by the amount of discretion one has over the way in which work is performed, (b) timing control in terms of the influence one has over scheduling of work, and (c) discretion in setting performance goals.He found four interrelated dimensions that affect job autonomy, namely the extent to which the supervisor (a) provides clear attainable goals, (b) exerts control over work activities, (c) ensures that the requisite resources are available, and (d) gives timely accurate feedback on progress toward goal attainment. PERSON CONTEXT-FIT The basic assumption underlying these models is that the relationship between person variables (such as needs or values) and both individual and organizational outcomes is contingent upon various features of the environment (such as the job, the organization, or culture).These models originated from Shaffer's (1953). He used Murray’s (1938) needs to develop a goodness-of-fit model that takes into account individual differences in needs as well as the characteristics of jobs. Cable ; DeRue (2002), through a confirmatory factor analysis, found that employees differentiate among three varieties of fit: (a) person-environment fit (in which the focus is on organizational outcomes such as organizational identification and turnover decisions); (b) â€Å"needs-supplies† fit (in which the primary focus is on career-related outcomes such as employee satisfaction) and (c) job demands– employee abilities fit.COGNITION As Locke ; Henne (1986) observed, cognition is inherent in motivation. The sensations of pleasure and pain are informational. Based on needs, values, and the situational context, people set goals and strategize ways to attain them. Goal-Setting Theory A meta-analysis by Zetik ; Stuhlmacher (2002) revealed that negotiators who have specific, challenging, and conflicting goals consistently achieve higher profits than those with no goals. Consistent with goal-setting theory, the higher the goal, the higher the outcome.No effect was found for participation in setting goals. Contextual Conditions Seijts ; Latham (2000b) examined the applicability of goal-setting principles when personal goals are potentially incompatible with those of the group. They found that social dilemmas are boundary conditions for the usual positive effects of goal setting. Self-enhancing personal goals have a detrimental effect on a group’s performance. Audia et al. (2000) found that past success increased strategic decision makers’ satisfaction, and satisfaction led them to increase their past strategies.Higher satisfaction was associated with higher self-efficacy and higher performance goals that increased dysfunctional persistence subsequent to a radical change in the environment. Implementation Intentions and Auto-Motive Goals Gollwitzer (1999) found that goal intentions that are accompanied by implementation intentions on tasks that are complex for people lead to a higher rate of goal attainment than do goal intentions only. An implementation intention is a mental link that is created between a specific future situation and the intended goal-directed response. Thus, it is subordinate to goal intention.Implementation intentions specify when, where, and how behavior is likely to lead to goal attainment. By forming implementation intentions, people strategically switch from conscious effortful control of their goal-directed behavior to being automatically controlled by situational cues. Bargh ; Ferguson (2000) summarized research findings that show that automatic or nonconscious goals produce the same outcomes as conscious goal pursuit in information processing, memory storage, social behavior, and task performance, as well as in self efficacy, self evaluation, and mood state. FeedbackAshford et al. (2003) stated that the processing of feedback likely involves monitoring the environment in an automatic preconscious fashion through visual, auditory, and relational cues. In their enumerative review, Ashford ; Black (1996) also suggested three primary motives for feedback seeking: instrumental to attain a goal and perform well, ego-based to defend or enhance one’s ego, and image-based to protect or enhance the impression others have of oneself. Self-Regulation Goal setting and feedback seeking in relation to goals are the core of self-regulation (Latham ; Locke 1991).Self-regulatory processes supporting goal impleme ntation were examined by Gollwitzer ; Bayer (1999). They offered a time perspective on goal striving and self-regulatory processes as mediating the effects of intentions on behavior. The latter consists of four phases: predecisional (choosing among competing wishes, based on expected value); preactional (forming implementation intentions in the service of the goal intention); actional (bringing goal direct actions to a successful end); and postactional (evaluation as to whether further action is necessary)Expectancy Theory After reviewing the literature, Ambrose ; Kulik (1999) concluded that little or no advances have been made in expectancy theory research in the past decade. Ambrose ; Kulik concluded that there are few theoretical or applied reasons for additional research on the application of this theory to organizational behavior Social Cognitive Theory SCT research shows empirically that the effect of environmental antecedents and consequences are mediated by cognitive variabl es.SCT emphasizes dual control systems in the self-regulation of motivation, namely a proactive discrepancy production system that works in concert with a reactive discrepancy reduction system (Bandura 2001). Thus, people are motivated by the foresight of goals, not just the hindsight of shortfalls. A specific high goal creates negative discrepancies to be mastered. Effort and resources are mobilized based on anticipatory estimates of what is necessary for goal attainment. AFFECT/EMOTION Mowday ; Sutton (1993) argued against an overemphasis on cognition in the study of motivation.This is because moods and emotions influence the attainment of complex long-term goals (Lord ; Kanfer 2002) and are interrelated with the other constructs we have discussed. Erez ; Isen (2002) showed that people with higher levels of positive affect exhibited higher levels of persistence, effort, self-reported motivation, and performance on two different tasks. Positive affect was associated with higher lev els of valence and expectancy beliefs at these tasks as well as higher levels of instrumentality beliefs at one of them. Organizational JusticeA significant body of research on work motivation that has appeared since Korman et al. ’s 1977 review is conceptualizations of organizational justice (Greenberg 1987). These studies, based on sociolegal research of disputants’ reactions to a conflict resolution, supplement Adam’s equity theory, the fundamental idea of which is that individuals develop beliefs about the inputs they provide in their employment relationship as well as about the outcomes they receive in return, and they form attitudes about the ratio between inputs and outcomes in relation to the corresponding ratios they perceive among comparison others.The premise of organizational justice is that fair procedures enhance employee acceptance of organizational outcomes. second premise, namely that in addition to being fair, leaders must be perceived as fair with regard to outcomes and processes that serve an important psychological need (Greenberg 1990). CONCLUSIONS First, three theories dominate the motivation literature: goal-setting, social cognitive, and organizational justice. Second, whereas theory and research in the third quarter of the twentieth century focused almost exclusively on cognition (Latham ; Budworth 2004), this is no longer true.Third, the ability to predict, understand, and influence motivation in the workplace has increased significantly as a result of the attention that has been given to all rather than only a few aspects of an employee’s motivation. Fourth, whereas the dependent variables historically studied were limited to traditional measures of job performance and satisfaction, today’s dependent variables range from citizenship to counterproductive behavior. Fifth, Cronbach’s (1957) plea a half century ago for experimental and correlational psychology to combine forces has been heeded.S ixth, the importance of context to motivation has been recognized much more in recent years than in the past; so much so that an additional chapter could be devoted to it. Seventh, these advances in the study of motivation may reflect the fact that this subject is no longer restricted to the research findings of North Americans. Eighth, behavioral scientists in the latter half of the twentieth century responded positively to William James’ exhortation to systematically study consciousness. Ninth, the antagonisms among theorists that existed throughout much of the twentieth century have either disappeared or have been minimized.Tenth, the nomological nets related to work motivation constructs are thicker and tighter than ever before, but the size of the aggregate net (metaphorically speaking) is not growing at a rate commensurate with the energy that scholars and practitioners have invested since 1977. Accordingly, Steers (2001) recently recognized the limitations of current t heory and research in work motivation, and issued a call for groundbreaking papers for publication in a special edition of the Academy of Management Review in 2004. It is too soon to assess whether any of the papers published in response to his call will

Informative Essay Sample on Theories of Evolution

Informative Essay Sample on Theories of Evolution The creation-evolution controversy is everlasting verbal battle between the advocates of two theories. During those disputes many brilliant ideas appeared, and even more ideas were demolished. Theories of evolution and creation involved best scientists: theologists, biologists, medics, sociologists, geologists, paleontologists, nuclear physicists and cosmologists. Those theories even acquired a â€Å"foster child†, so called theistic evolution theory. In this essay I will discuss the origins and consequences of the creation-evolution controversy, emphasize main points of three theories and sum everything up with my personal opinion. The theory of evolution (also called Metaphysical naturalism) probably originated in early Greek philosophy. In their definition of nature, Greeks distinguished natural from artificial. During the Renaissance, which reintroduced numerous treatises by Greek and Roman natural philosophers, and many of the ideas and concepts of naturalism were conceived. In this period, metaphysical naturalism finally acquired a distinct name, materialism. However, in the 20th century advances in physics as well as philosophy made the whole idea of materialism untenable. Matter was found to be a form of energy so reality was obviously not so â€Å"material† as it used to be thought of. As a final note to the history of metaphysical naturalism, Marxism, a variety of politicized naturalism, appeared. However, today most advocates of metaphysical naturalism reject both extremes and embrace the more moderate political ideals. While the adherents of evolutionary theory were disputing whose ideas is mo re â€Å"absolutely right† new theory the theory of theistic evolution appeared. Theistic evolution (or evolutionary creationism) is the general opinion that the theory of creation is compatible understanding about biological evolution. Theistic evolution supporters can be seen as the group, who try to avoid conflicts between religion and science, they are sure that teachings about creation and scientific theories of evolution need not be contradictory. This term was first used by Eugenie Scott to refer to the beliefs about creation and evolution holding the theological view that God creates through evolution. This view is accepted by major Christian churches, including Roman Catholicism and some Protestant denominations. The major criticism of theistic evolution by non-theistic evolutionists focuses on its essential belief in a supernatural creator, evolutionists state that theistic evolution is simply a belief in a God of the gaps, where anything that cannot currently be explained by science is attributed to God. Intelligent design (also known as creationism) is the assertion that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection. The term intelligent design came into use after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the 1987 case of Edwards v. Aguillard who claimed that the teaching of creation science alongside evolution was a violation of the Establishment Clause, which prohibits state aid to religion. The term irreducible complexity was introduced by Michael Behe, who defines it as a single system which is composed of several well-matched interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning.For that time their claims were declared to be unsupported, but in a long run it turns out that sympathizers of creation idea have the strongest arguments. Fine Tuning argument, for example, claims that the fundame ntal constants of physics and laws of nature appear so finely-tuned to permit life that only a supernatural engineer can explain it. Attentive reader should have already noticed that I am the supporter of creation theory. In my personal view neither the naturalism theory nor the theory of theistic evolution can not (and never will) explain the existence of morality, emotions, conscience, love. Only God who has all aforementioned features could give them to us. In a conclusion I would like to mention the defiance that Dr. Kent Hovind bid to all advocates of evolution theory in far 1990. I have a standing offer of $250,000 to anyone who can give any empirical evidence (scientific proof) for evolution. My $250,000 offer demonstrates that the hypothesis of evolution is nothing more than a religious belief.No one still managed to get this reward. Maybe YOU want to be the first?;)

America Of mice and men essays

America Of mice and men essays The American Dream now day's is living in a huge mansion on an island with all the luxurious things you could ask for. During the Depression the American Dream was to have a small house and be able to grow crops to be able to have your own business. In Of Mice and Men, Steinbeck uses George and Lennies version of the American Dream to represent the low standards of the Depression. George and Lennie fought hard to try and accomplish their dream. ` Someday-were gonna get the jack together and were gonna have a little house and a couple of acres an a cow and some pigs and live off the fatta the lan. ` They were always thinking of how they could get the land and the little house they always wanted. Steinbeck has George and Lennie always talk about their dream to make it to where the reader knows that, they have always wanted to fulfill this dream of theirs and that it could happen for them. There were many characters throughout the book who did not believe in George and Lennies dream. Many of them thought that they could never do it. The American Dream was set at a low standard during the Depression. Many people were jumping from job to job or just trying to find a job. ` There wouldnt be no more runnin around the country and getting fed by a Jap cook. `(57) The American Dream was set at such a low standard mostly because of the income that people were making, some peoples dreams were to just find a house and some land to be able to live off of while others dreams were to just get a job to be able to survive. ` They come an they quit an go on, an every damn one of ems got a little piece of land in his head. ` (74) Some people did survive and did make there dream come true but than there were some that didnt. ...